The Temples of Medieval Kashmir

Kashmir is known for its mountains, lakes, springs, and mystic shrines that are nestled amongst them. It has been a land of spiritual richness since time immemorial. For ages, it has been known as Reshé Ver — the land of saints & sages. I happen to be a child of this pious land.

Kashmir’s vast landscape is dotted with stone temples of architectural brilliance, made from granite or limestone. Almost all of them are dedicated to the lord of the universe — Shiva. Shaivism thrived in the Kashmir Valley between the 8th & 12th centuries CE. These shrines are spread over the entire Valley from South to Central to North Kashmir. They were built by different dynasties that ruled Kashmir — the Karkota and Utpala kings being the most prominent ones. These temples have been mentioned in Rajtarangini (River of Kings), the first-ever historical account of Kashmir by Kalhana in the 12th century CE. Though these medieval marvels still stand, however, most of them are in varying stages of decay. Some of these shrines are under the care of the Archaeological Survey of India. The Indian Army stationed in different parts of the Valley is also, additionally, taking care of a few of them, and those are definitely in a better condition.

These temples are mostly non-functional now, with the main deity also missing from the sanctum sanctorum. However, in the ones under the care of the Army, daily rituals are performed by a dedicated pujari. Having said that, all these medieval-era temples are in crying need of proper restoration. Also, I sincerely hope that the ones that are less prominent, yet carry a very rich past, also catch the attention of the administration soon and adequate efforts are made to preserve them.

PAYAR

Payar is a village 34 km from Srinagar in the Pulwama district. It is also known as Payech.

The small 9th century CE Shiva shrine is nothing short of an exquisite gem in the middle of a bustling neighbourhood. This is one of the rare old stone temples where the roof is still intact. And not only that, but it is also said to weigh a little more than 7 tons!

Payar is the best-preserved example of medieval Kashmir temple architecture. The shrine which is said to be made up of ten stones, is quite small — 8 sq. ft. in area and 21 ft. high from the ground. It consists of a square sanctum facing east. Two mouldings, a plain torus and a filleted torus adorned the base. While the sanctum has four entrances opening towards cardinal directions, the approach is only from the east. These entrances are rectangular and are surmounted by trefoil arches enclosed in triangular pediments.

The pilasters on which the pediments rest are crowned with capitals containing a pair of geese each, while the pilasters of the trefoiled arches contain carry Bull capitals, a scarf being tied to their humps. All the trefoiled arches contain sculptures. On the eastern side, Shiva as Lakulisa is shown seated cross-legged, on the northern side is the Bhairava, on the western side shows a six-armed Nataraja and the southern side shows the figures of two-armed, three-headed Shiva seated on the pedestal, with Uma and other figures.

The sanctum is surmounted by a two-tier pyramidical roof, the band between the tiers showing alternately projecting and recessed arched square spaces. The side of the upper tier of the roof contains arched niches while the bottom of the lower tier is decorated with floral designs. The roof is surmounted by an amalaka. From the inside, the roof is domical, the centre is decorated with a lotus flower, and the lower edges are ornamented by three-edged fillets and beaded circles. The spandrels carry the figures of yakshas.

PANDRETHAN

The great 14th century CE Kashmiri Shaiva mystic — Lalleshwari or Lal Ded, as she was fondly called, was born in the village of Pandrethan, which is within the Srinagar city limits now. And here is located one of the most exquisite Shiva shrines of Kashmir!

Pandrethan was once the old capital of Kashmir, founded by King Pravarasena in the 6th century CE. The word ‘Pandrethan’ is derived from the word ‘Puranadishthana’ which means an old town. This Shiva temple is also known as the Meruvardhanaswami temple as it was built by Meruvardhana, a minister of King Partha, who ruled Kashmir in the 10th century CE.

The mandapa-style grey-coloured stone shrine is like a little jewel sitting in the middle of a square water body that is fed by natural springs. The water level of this tank moves up and down with the level of the Jhelum that flows not far from here. The shrine can be accessed through a footbridge on the front side only. There are huge Chinar trees that lend good shade to the surroundings.

The shrine is built on the Triratha plan externally and is square internally. It is impressive due to its structural propriety, symmetry, and restrained ornamentation. The two-storeyed pyramidical roof of this temple is still in place and is unique as it has beautifully been chiselled out of a single block of stone. The temple is a small one, around 17.5 ft on each side. As you step inside, you see a plain interior. However, the ceiling above is very creatively carved.

It is probably one of the most exquisite ceilings that one can see among all the temples in Kashmir. Nine stone slabs are arranged in three oversailing squares, forming several triangles. Each triangle contains different figures, like yakshas or other flying beings, sculpted into it. The figure above the lintel of the main door represents Lakulisa — a form of Shiva. The same figure can be seen on one of the faces of the temple at Payar also. In the sanctum sanctorum, a beautiful Shivling is placed on a pedestal in a square niche carved on the floor.

The platform of the temple remains mostly submerged in the water. The face has a set of projected mouldings at both ends of its plain wall. A noteworthy feature is the string of carved elephants that runs around the outside walls of the temple.

Being inside the cantonment area makes it a very high-security zone, hence prior permission from the Army is a must before one plans a visit. It is also called Pani Mandir by the Army folks. This is one of the rare temples of that era, which is very well maintained and where regular prayers are conducted.

The Pandrethan temple is part of a much bigger temple complex. It includes an excavation site too, which hosts several excavated sculptures from the 2nd century CE onwards. These include two large monolithic Shiva Lingams and seven Gandhara-style sculptures. One of the lingams is 10ft tall!

MARTAND

The temple of Martand in the Anantnag district is about 63 km from Srinagar.

This shrine is dedicated to the Sun God or Surya Dev, which in Sanskrit means Martand. While King Lalitaditya Muktapida has been credited with the construction of the current temple in the 8th century CE, it is believed that the foundation was laid down by King Ranaditya, anywhere between 370 500 CE. The smaller panels around the main shrine have been attributed to his wife, Queen Amritaprakha. The shrine was demolished by the ruler Sikander Shahmiri in the 15th century CE.

The temple sits atop a karewa or a plateau from where one can view the picturesque Valley far and wide. From the ruins and archaeological findings, the architecture is said to be a blend of Gandharan, Gupta, Chinese, Roman, Syrian-Byzantine, and Greek forms. It now stands for the truest specimen of Kashmiri architecture.

The temple, which is mostly in ruins now, is built of huge blocks of grey limestone using lime mortar to hold them together. It has a colonnaded courtyard, with the main shrine in the centre. Eighty-four smaller shrines surround it. The overall size of the temple is 220 ft by 142 ft. The entrances — both the main and that of the shrine are nothing but grand. The main shrine must have had a pyramidical top, like most temples of medieval Kashmir. The top of the roof is said to have been made of gold, the sheen of which could be seen from as far away as the town of Bijbehera! All the walls in the complex have intricate sculptures of different Gods and Goddesses like the Vishnu, Ganga, and Yamuna.

In the words of British architect and scholar Sir Alexander Cunningham: “The architectural remains of Kashmir are perhaps the most remarkable of the existing monuments of India.”

JYESHTESWARA

Anyone who would have been to Srinagar ever would have undoubtedly got a glimpse of this stone temple, which is perched on top of the Shankaracharya hill, right in the centre of Srinagar. It is a part of the Zabarwan mountain range that gives Srinagar its character. In olden times, the hill went by the name of Gopadri. The neighbourhood around the hill goes by the name of Gupkar, which comes from Gopadri.

Like all other temples of that era, the Jyeshteswara temple is made of stone. The temple is single-shrined and is dedicated to Shiva. Very strategically located, at a height of 1000 ft, it gives magnificent views of the entire city of Srinagar, especially the Dal Lake and the river Jhelum meandering through.

As per the Rajtarangini, the original temple is believed to have been made by King Gopaditya in 370 BCE. That makes it the oldest and the most significant temple in the entire valley of Kashmir. Several other kings contributed thereafter to renovate the structure, as many invaders tried to destroy it too. For those who would like to trek, there are quite a few trails to do so, either from the Dal Lake side or from the Durga Nag side. For the rest, it is a short drive up the motorable road to a certain point, from where one needs to climb 240 steps to reach the shrine.

The shrine sits on a solid 20 ft tall octagonal rock base, with a shikhara at the top. Octagonal columns support the ceiling in the sanctum sanctorum. Each side of the octagon is 15 ft long and 8 ft wide. The walls are quite plain with no ornamentation. A very beautiful lingam adorns the cella.

The seer, Adi Shankara, is supposed to have visited the temple in the 8th century CE, and that’s how the temple got associated with the name Shankaracharya. He meditated in a cave there and wrote the Saundarya Lahiri also there.

Even now, Shankaracharya temple, as it is called in common parlance, is the most popular of all temples in Srinagar. It was a tradition with Kashmiri Pandit families to visit the shrine on every Shravan Poornima.

The Doordarshan TV tower also stands on this hill.

A NAMELESS SHRINE

Next to the picturesque Manasbal lake in the Ganderbal district, which is 29 km from Srinagar, you will find this unique stone temple, most of which appears to be submerged under the water. Only a portion of its roof is visible. It looks very divine in the centre of what happens to be a natural spring.

After enquiring and doing a Google search also, I could not find much information regarding the background of the temple. However, the structure has a very strong resemblance to the other medieval temples of Kashmir. Two tiers of the pyramidical roof are visible, and the rest is under the water. Only the upper part of the pediment at the entrance is visible. It has beautiful carvings and faces west.

Over time, the temple, which many say is a Shiva shrine, must have got partially submerged in the water.

BUMZOO

The Bumzoo temple is inside a cave on top of an elevation, very close to Martand temple in the Anantnag district. It would be around 65 km from Srinagar.

These are also called Bhaumajo caves, and they lie on the left bank of river Lidder. This shrine is the biggest one dedicated to Kaladeva.

The cave temple is perched on a small limestone cliff with the cavern at about 60 ft above the river level. One must walk up several steps through a small hamlet to reach the cave.

The carved stone doorway is square in shape, with a rectangular top flanked by two round-headed niches (now bare) on either side of it. One moves through a 50-ft-long passage, to reach a cell that is about ten sq. ft. in size. The stone shrine constructed inside the cave resembles other stone temples in the Valley. There are a few steps that lead into the sanctum sanctorum. One can also see a few Shiv Lingams inside on the cave floor.

LODUV

The village of Loduv lies at a distance of 16 km from Srinagar, between Pampore and Khrew, in the Pulwama district of Kashmir.

The temple of Loduv, a Shiva shrine, is amongst the very old temples in Kashmir. Studies have revealed that it is as old or even older than the Jyeshteswara temple in Srinagar. However, the present-day structure dates back to the 8th century CE. Surprisingly, the temple has not been mentioned in the Rajtarangini — the first written historical account of Kashmir by Kalhana in the 12th century CE.

The sharp and square stone shrine sits in the middle of a shallow water tank, which gets water from a natural spring in its northeast corner. The design is very simple, typical of all Kashmir temples from that era. The inside is circular in shape, with idols placed there. The walls are devoid of any ornamentation. The entrance on the southwest is topped by a horseshoe shaped arch surmounted by a triangular pediment which projects slightly from the side walls. The circular sanctum once had a domical roof built of horizontal courses of Kanjur (fossilized rock) stone. The roof, which once upon a time would have given a majestic appearance to the structure, is missing now. A walkway connects the main entrance from the road to the shrine.

Unfortunately, Google is not properly updated with these obscure locations, so you have to rely a lot on your pre-work, experience of your cab driver and of course, on the elderly locals that you meet enroute.

The site is under the ASI and the entrance is always locked. The key is kept with a caretaker living nearby.

AVANTISWAMI

The Avantiswami temples were built by the King Avantivarman of the Utpala dynasty between the years 853–855 CE on the banks of river Jhelum. Originally known as Viswasara, the town of Avantipura, in district Pulwama, is 30 km from Srinagar. It was also his capital then. Avantivarman built many Hindu temples in Kashmir during his reign, which, like the ones built by Lalitadtiya, before him, were made of stone.

Out of the two temples here, the one dedicated to Vishnu is called Avantiswami, and the other to Shiva is known as Avantisvara.

The original complex has a temple in the middle of a big oblong courtyard, surrounded by four small shrines at the four corners. A mandapa is seen in front of the staircase of the main shrine. The temples have pillars, reliefs, and platforms with excellent detailing. They are engraved with figures of gods, goddesses, and other human and divine forms depicting various stories. The Avantiswami temple resembles the Martand Sun Temple, however, it is smaller in size. The finesse of the work is there even now for all to see.

People travelling by road from Jammu to Srinagar can never miss this beautiful sight as it is right there on the National Highway.

MAMAL OR MAMLESHWAR

Mamleshwar is an ancient Shiva shrine next to river Lidder, nestled in one of the most picturesque settings near Pahalgam, 90 km from Srinagar, in the Anantnag district.

It was made by King Jayasimha sometime between 1128–1155 CE. Just like Payar, this too is a very small shrine with an area of just eight sq. ft. The shrine is made of stone and has a unique twin-headed Nandi, probably not seen anywhere else.

“Mam Mal” means “Don’t Go”!

We all remember the legend that we heard as kids about how Ganesha got an elephant head. It is believed that this is where Ganesha was appointed dwarpal or the doorkeeper by Parvati when she went for a bath. She instructed him not to let anyone enter the premises without her permission. It’s here that Shiva beheaded Ganesha when he tried to stop him from entering his own home and later gave him an elephant head.

BONIYAR

Boniyar town is on the banks of River Jhelum, on the road between Baramulla to Uri in North Kashmir. Srinagar to Baramulla is 53 km and you get to drive through very scenic poplar-lined avenues.

Boniyar is about 25 km away, just a few km short of Uri. The drive from Baramulla to Uri is mesmerizing as one follows the Jhelum downstream on one side with tall mountains on the other.

The 9th CE Boniyar temple is said to be the best surviving specimen of Kashmiri architecture. The temple was constructed by the rulers of the Avantivarman dynasty and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The original image of Vishnu is no longer there so a Shiv Lingam found from a river bed has been placed instead.

The quadrangle or the cellular peristyle, within which the shrine sits, consists of 53 cells and the gateway. Each cell is 7' by 4' in size. One look at the colonnade strongly reminds you of something similar you would’ve seen at Martand.

The entire structure is very imposing. It’s built on a double plinth with two ambulatory passages that can be reached by separate staircases. In front of the temple is a platform, where a column dedicated to Garuda, once stood. The sanctum sanctorum has a single entrance and recesses on the other three, all framed by pedimented trefoils. It’s interesting to note that while most temples in Kashmir used limestone, this temple was made from blocks of granite. This grey granite stone is nowhere seen on this side of Jhelum, so one can safely assume what effort must have gone into ferrying them from across the other bank.

The temple is being taken care of by ASI and the Army. You need to seek permission from the army officer incharge before you can enter the premises.

DATTA

Datta Mandir is at a short distance from Boniyar temple. It’s actually Detha Mandir Bandi according to the ASI and is believed to have been built in the 10th century in the typical Kashmiri style of architecture. Legend says that this temple was actually built by the Pandavas during their exile. The stones used to build this temple were carried by Bheema all the way from the nearby mountains. This temple is situated on the banks of Jhelum and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

This magnificent temple was desecrated in 1947 during the Pakistani tribal attack. Many ancient idols were damaged and sacred ornaments were stolen. The Indian army installed a beautiful marble Shiva there in 1992.

Unfortunately, there is not much information available about this sacred temple.

SUGANDESHA

The temple is in Pattan which is a town in Baramulla district of Kashmir, about 27 km from Srinagar.

This Shiva shrine was built in the 9th century CE by King Sankarvarman who succeeded his father King Avantivarman. It resembles the Avantiswamin temple and is mostly in ruins now. The area used to be called Sankarapura Pattana and was the capital of Sankarvarman’s kingdom. The King named by temple after his wife Queen Sugandha.

Sugandesha temple stands on a square double base and has a portico in the front with foiled niches on three sides externally, which might have contained images. It has a peristyle like the Avantiswami temple, with the entrance on the eastern wall. The cells have a row of fluted columns.

Dismembered architectural pieces lie in the courtyard, which includes fragments of fluted columns, brackets, rosettes, and figures of atlantes. This temple is said to have been built with material plundered from Parihaspura — the capital city founded by King Lalitaditya more than a century before this. In those days, kings often created their own legacy by demolishing some other emperor’s creation.

The ruins of the city of Parihaspura still exists, not very far from this temple.

Sugandesha temple stands on a square double base and has a portico in the front with foiled niches on three sides externally which might have contained images. It has a peristyle similar to that of the Avantiswamin temple. The cells have a row of fluted columns.

Architectural members lying in the courtyard include fragments of fluted columns, brackets, rosettes and figures of atlantes. This temple is said to have been built with material plundered from Parihaspura — the capital city founded by of King Lalitaditya more than a century before this.

The ruins of the city of Parihaspura still exist, not very far from this temple.

SANKARAGAURISHWARA

Just 300 m away from Sugandesha temple is the Sankaragaurishvara temple, built by the same king at around the same time. This is a Shiva shrine too, however, no Shivlings are present in the sanctum now.

At the first glance, it appears as a square walled structure which reminds one of the temple at Martand or Sharda, but much smaller. The temple’s entrance porch faces east and has intricately sculpted carvings on its exterior walls as well as on the interior. The columns at the entrance are also beautifully sculpted in the typical architectural style of Kashmir. The plinth of the temple, and of the shrine next to it, is built in a peristyle — an open colonnaded pattern, within a walled enclosure, which forms a cellular passage, remnants of which can still be seen.

Kalhana, the great historian of Kashmir, has documented these temples in his epic work - Rajtaringini.

WANGATH

Wangath temple complex is nestled amongst high mountains and dense forests by the banks of the Wangath river in the beautiful village of Naranag, around 50 kilometres from Srinagar in the Ganderbal district.The area is barely inhabited and the population is mostly that of Gujjars who live in their huts very close to the temple.

The present-day temple complex was built by Lalitaditya of the Karakota dynasty in the 8th century CE. There are three clusters of these temples at the base of the Butsher (Bhuteshwar) mountain, overlooking the noisy Wangath river from an elevation. A day’s climb through Butsher leads one to Lake Gangabal and the Harmukh mountain towering over it. The Harmukh glacier feeds the Wangath.

Since ancient times, nags (serpents) have been worshipped in Kashmir. The Karakota dynasty was also known as the Naga Karakotas and was known for its reverence of serpents. It is believed that they named the place Naranag.

The Wangath temples were originally built around the same time as the Jyeshteswara temple in Srinagar and the Bumzoo temple near Mattan. Kalhana writes in Rajatarangini that Ashoka founded Srinagar in the year 250 BCE. His son Jaluka, in 220 BCE, built the Shaivite temples Bhuteshvara, Jyestarudra, and Muthas around the holy spring of Naranag.

Lalitaditya, in the 8th century CE, donated money to the shrine after his victorious expedition.

Avantivarman, in the 9th century CE, built a stone pedestal with a silver conduit at this shrine for the bathing of sacred sculptures. Kalhana’s father, Canpaka and his uncle Kanka also would pay obeisance at these temples.

Like the Boniyar temples, these temples are also made up of huge granite blocks using interlocking technology. The architecture is like that of other Kashmir temples of that era. Different invaders have plundered these temples at different points in time.

The Wangath temples were originally built around the same time as the Shankaracharya temple in Srinagar and the Bumzoo temple near Mattan. Kalhana writes in Rajatarangini that Ashoka founded Srinagar in 250 BCE. His son Jaluka, in 220 BCE, built the Shaivite temples Bhuteshvara, Jyestarudra, and Muthas around the holy spring of Naranag. Lalitaditya in the 8th CE donated money to the shrine after his victorious expedition. Avantivarman in 9th CE built a stone pedestal with a silver conduit at this shrine for the bathing of sacred idols. Kalhana’s father Canpaka and uncle Kanka also would frequent the site (credits: wiki)

Like the Boniyar temples, these temples are also made up of huge interlocked blocks of granite. The architecture is similar to other Kashmir temples of that era. The temples have been plundered by different invaders at different points of time.

NARASTAN

Narastan temple is said to be 1400 yrs old. It lies 16 km from Tral town in Pulwama district and 60 km from Srinagar. The temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu, stands against the lofty mountains of the Brariaangan range. The name Narastan is from Narayan Sthan (the place of Narayan).

This stone temple has a distinguished architectural style. It is constructed with stones in Gandhara style, on a single base consisting of only four courses of stones. At the top of the pediment, there is a figure that resembles Garuda, the vehicle of Lord Vishnu. There are trefoil arches on the peripheral shrine walls, which is its main attraction. There’s no circumambulatory path on top of the shrine. From the courtyard, a flight of four steps leads to the shrine, which is in a dilapidated state and almost in ruins now.

The interior compound measures about 8.6 sq ft. The temple is roofless at present. The idol is missing.

A stream of water gushes down in the front of the shrine.

PARIHASPURA*

Parihaspura is not a temple but they are the ruins of Lalitaditya’s capital city.

Parihaspura in Sanskrit means a “city of laughter” or a “smiling city”. Lalitaditya founded this city between the 7th & 8th centuries CE and moved his capital from Srinagar to Parihaspura. The historian Kalhana writes that the King built his residence and four temples here. The temples included one for Vishnu (Muktakeshva) where the emperor supposedly used 84,000 tolas of gold to make the image of Vishnu. In another temple, he used as many palas of silver for the image of Parihaskesana. He also had made a statue of Buddha in copper, that according to Kalhana “reached up to the sky.” The main temple was larger than the grand temple that Lalitaditya built in Martand.

Had Parihaspur not been plundered and pillaged over and over again, it probably would have been the grandest complex of palaces and temples from that era. But that was not to be.

A lot of destruction occurred when Avanti Varman’s son Shankar Varman moved his capital to the new city of Sankarapura Pattana. He cannibalized precious material from these temples and palaces to build his own city. Later, during the war between King Harsha and Uccala in 11th century CE, Uccala sought refuge in Parihaspur. King Harsha suspecting the same, set the place on fire. Finally, the temples were demolished by the invader Sultan Sikandar in the 14th CE. (source: wiki)

Now, the ruins are known as Kani Shahar — the city of stones! As one stands at the gates, the eyes take in the huge expanse of land — a huge plateau-like area with ruins spread across hundreds of acres in the form of large boulders, columns, ornately carved figurines, which would once have formed the various palaces and temples. The foundation of these structures are quite clearly visible — while some have parts of the upper structure still in place, some have barely the plinth left now. On all sides of the periphery are orchards of almonds and pears where colourful blossoms were in full bloom at the time I visited.

For any queries or suggestions, please mail me at namrata.wakhloo@gmail.com.